British Education Policies in British India

The evolution of education policies under British India reflects a transition from limited elitist education to broader yet stratified educational reforms aimed at administrative convenience and socio-political control. These policies significantly influenced the structure and priorities of modern Indian education, leaving a legacy of challenges and opportunities. This article aims to study in detail the various education policies introduced during British rule, their objectives, features, and impacts on Indian society.

About Education Policies in British India

• Education in India underwent significant transformations during British rule, guided by the colonial government’s policies.
• These policies oscillated between promoting traditional learning and introducing Western education to align with British interests.
• The educational reforms had lasting impacts, shaping India’s socio-political landscape and fostering the rise of nationalism.

Orientalists and Anglicists

The Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy originated with the Charter Act of 1813. The debate centered on the ambiguously defined terms “literature” and “learned natives” in Section 43 of the Act.

• Orientalists’ Viewpoint: Advocated for education through classical Indian languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic, promoting traditional Indian learning.
• Anglicists’ Viewpoint: Favored Western education in English, emphasizing Western sciences and literature.

Educated Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy supported Anglicist views, arguing that Western education was essential for addressing India’s socio-political challenges.

Macaulay’s Minutes (1835)

Lord William Bentinck sought advice from Lord Macaulay on addressing the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy, which led to his famous Minutes of 1835.

Features of Macaulay’s Minutes (1835)

• Medium of Instruction: English was recommended for imparting Western education, deemed superior to traditional learning.
• Creation of a New Class: Macaulay envisioned a class “Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.”
• Downward Filtration Theory: Proposed educating a few Indians who would act as intermediaries to spread knowledge among the masses.
• Policy Changes:
  • Printing of Sanskrit and Arabic books ceased.
  • English became the court language, replacing Persian.
  • Western science and literature were prioritized.

Impact of Macaulay’s Minutes (1835)

• By 1842, 42 schools were established, and educational zones were created in presidencies like Bengal.
• Modern education introduced Indians to Western political and social ideas, fostering the intellectual foundation for nationalism.
• However, the downward filtration theory failed, as education remained limited to elites, leaving the masses uneducated.

Wood’s Despatch (1854)

The Wood’s Despatch was the first comprehensive education policy introduced during the Charter Act of 1853. It aimed to establish a robust educational framework across India.

Features of Wood’s Despatch (1854)

• Education for All: Emphasized primary, middle, and higher education for Indians, with scholarships to support students.
• Medium of Instruction: Local languages for schools and English for higher studies.
• Institutional Framework:
  • Universities in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay were established (1857).
  • Departments of Public Instruction were set up in all provinces.
  • Graded schools (universities, colleges, high schools, middle schools, primary schools) were recommended.
• Female and Vocational Education: Prioritized along with teacher training.
• Grants-in-Aid: Private schools satisfying conditions like secular education and inspections were eligible for financial aid.

Impact of Wood’s Despatch (1854)

• Increased access to education but neglected Indian languages and culture.
• Education became a means of livelihood rather than a pursuit of knowledge.
• It centralised education, laying the foundation for modern institutional frameworks.

Hunter Education Commission (1882–83)

The Hunter Commission reviewed the progress since Wood’s Despatch and recommended significant changes.

Primary Education

• Focused on public education rather than preparing students solely for higher studies.
• Local boards were empowered to levy cess for schooling.
• Indigenous education systems were left free of government interference.

Secondary and Higher Education

• Divided curriculum into:
  • Curriculum A: Preparatory subjects for higher education.
  • Curriculum B: Practical and vocational subjects.
• Highlighted the need for varied curricula to cater to diverse aptitudes.

Impact of Hunter Education Commission (1882–83)

• Strengthened primary education and expanded educational opportunities.
• Encouraged schools to admit students from backward classes.

Raleigh Commission and Indian Universities Act (1904)

Appointed in 1902, the Raleigh Commission aimed to address university education and curb student nationalist sentiments.

Features of Raleigh Commission

• Universities gained autonomy in staff appointments.
• Stricter affiliation rules for colleges.
• The territorial jurisdiction of universities was defined.
• Introduction of postgraduate teaching and honours courses in universities.

Impact of Raleigh Commission

• Increased government control over universities, reducing their autonomy.
• The Act marked the beginning of university grants in India.

Indian-Led Educational Initiatives

New English School

• Established in 1880 by Vishnu Krushna Chiplunkar, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Gopal Ganesh Agarkar.
• Aimed to use the English language to instil nationalist ideas.

Deccan Education Society (DES)

• Founded to provide affordable education across Bombay Presidency.
• Established renowned institutions like Fergusson College (1885) and Willingdon College (1919).
• Symbolised Indian efforts to break British control over education.

The Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913)

• The movement for compulsory primary education gained momentum following the progressive initiative by the princely state of Baroda, which made primary education free and compulsory.
• Inspired by this, Gopal Krishna Gokhale passionately advocated for similar reforms at the national level.
• He introduced bills in 1910 and 1911 in the Legislative Council to institutionalize free and compulsory primary education, marking a watershed moment in Indian education history.
• However, both bills were rejected, with the British government citing reasons such as lack of public demand, unpreparedness of people, resistance from local governments, and insufficient support from local bodies.
• Despite rejection, these efforts highlighted the necessity for educational reform, prompting the government to revise its policies.
• King George V’s visit to India in 1912 further underscored the issue, as his dissatisfaction over the rejection of Gokhale’s bill accelerated reforms.

Features of 1913 Resolution

The resolution laid the groundwork for education policy reform, addressing various educational levels:

• Primary Education
  • Expansion of lower and upper primary schools.
  • Inclusion of subjects like drawing, nature study, and physical exercises.
  • Encouragement of local governance in education through boards.
  • Emphasis on training and refresher courses for teachers.
• Secondary Education
  • Continued government presence in secondary education while encouraging private participation through grants-in-aid.
  • Recommendations for improving curricula and examination systems.
• University Education
  • Expansion of universities and introduction of teaching universities.
  • Delimitation of university responsibilities to focus on higher education and research.
• Women’s Education
  • Tailored curriculum for girls, reducing examination pressure.
  • Emphasis on increasing female teachers and inspectors.

Saddler Commission Report (1917-1919)

Reasons for Formation of Saddler Commission

• The commission was set up to address the inefficiencies of Calcutta University but extended its analysis to the entire education system.
• Key members, including Sir Asutosh Mukherjee, recommended structural reforms to bridge the gap between school and university education.

Key Recommendations of Saddler Commission

• Separate intermediate colleges from universities, introducing a two-year intermediate course.
• Establish provincial boards of secondary and intermediate education.
• Use the mother tongue as the medium of instruction in secondary schools.
• Promote autonomous and unitary universities, focusing on residential teaching.
• Encourage female and technical education.

Analysis of Saddler Commission

• The Saddler Report influenced later reforms, including the 1975 adoption of the 10+2+3 pattern.
• It also foreshadowed the emphasis on modern vocational education.

The Hartog Committee (1929)

Reasons for Formation of Hartog Committee (1929)

The rapid expansion of educational institutions post-World War I led to declining standards. The Hartog Committee sought to strengthen education quality.

Features of Hartog Committee (1929)

• Advocated controlled expansion of primary education to maintain quality.
• Suggested vocational courses for average students after the 8th standard.
• Diversified secondary school curricula, emphasizing industrial and commercial subjects.

Impact of Hartog Committee (1929)

The committee’s focus on vocational education and the selective advancement of students significantly shaped future policy directions.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

Features of Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

• Free and compulsory education for children aged 7-14.
• Education imparted in the mother tongue.
• Manual work as a core part of education, enabling self-reliance.
• Emphasis on holistic development to create ideal citizens.

Analysis of Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

Despite its innovative approach, the scheme faced practical challenges, including resource wastage and implementation difficulties. Yet, its principles of mother-tongue instruction and activity-based education remain relevant.

The Sargent Plan (1944)

Key Provisions of The Sargent Plan (1944)

• Pre-primary education is available for children aged 3-6, and free, universal primary education is available for those aged 6-11.
• Diversification of high school education into academic and vocational streams.
• Emphasis on teacher training, physical education, and education for differently-abled individuals.
• Aimed at eradicating adult illiteracy in 20 years.

Significance of British Educational Policies

• Foundation of Modern Education: Created an institutional framework for education that continues to influence India’s system.
• Catalyst for Nationalism: Exposed Indians to Western ideas, fostering socio-political consciousness and inspiring the freedom movement.
• Limitations: Education remained elitist, focused on creating a workforce for British administration rather than fostering holistic knowledge.

Conclusion

The education policies during the colonial era laid the foundation for India’s modern education system. They highlighted access, quality, and relevance issues, many of which continue to resonate. From Gokhale’s advocacy for compulsory primary education to the Sargent Plan’s vision for holistic learning, these efforts reflect the evolving priorities of education in India. Despite the constraints of colonial governance, these milestones contributed significantly to shaping India’s educational ethos, paving the way for post-independence reforms.

GS - 1