Genome sequencing

Context 

Latest genome sequencing in Mumbai finds one-third of samples positive for Omicron.

What Is Genome Sequencing?

• A genome is a complete set of genetic instructions which are present in an organism in its DNA. Sequencing is the sequence of occurrences of the four nucleotide bases i.e., adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). 
• The human genome is made up of over 3 billion of these genetic letters. The whole genome can’t be sequenced all at once because available methods of DNA sequencing can only handle short stretches of DNA at a time.
• While human genomes are made of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), a virus genome can be made of either DNA or RNA (Ribonucleic acid). Coronavirus is made of RNA. Every organism has a unique genome sequence. 
• Genome sequencing is a technique that reads and interprets genetic information found within DNA or RNA.

Approaches for Genome Sequencing

• There are two approaches to the task of cutting up the genome and putting it back together again. 

• The “clone-by-clone” approach involves first breaking the genome up into relatively large chunks, called clones, about 150,000 base pairs (bp) long. Scientists use genome mapping techniques to figure out where in the genome each clone belongs. 
• Next, they cut each clone into smaller, overlapping pieces of the right size for sequencing—about 500 BP each. Finally, they sequence the pieces and use the overlaps to reconstruct the sequence of the whole clone.
• The “whole-genome shotgun” method involves breaking the genome up into small pieces, sequencing the pieces, and reassembling the pieces into the full genome sequence.

Image Courtesy: Thinglinks

Significance of Genome Sequencing

• Understands the Virus: The purpose of genome sequencing is to understand the role of certain mutations in increasing the virus’s infectivity. Some mutations explain immune escape or the virus’s ability to evade antibodies which have consequences for vaccines.
• Studying Efficacy: It helps in studying whether the vaccines developed so far are effective against such mutant strains of the virus and if can prevent re­infection and transmission. 
• Tracing Mutations: Sequencing of the genomes of viral strains is important from a “know-thy-enemy” point of view as it becomes easier to trace the mutations. Scientists can find mutations much more easily and quickly.
• Developing Vaccines: Knowledge generated through vital research assists in developing diagnostics and potential therapeutics and vaccines now and for the potential diseases in the future.
• Vital Information: important information and findings can be derived from the Genome sequencing of those who tested positive for COVID.

Challenges in Genome Sequencing in India

• Very High target: The aim was to sequence at least 5% of the samples, the minimum required to keep track of the virus variants. This has so far been only around 1%, primarily due to insufficient reagents and tools necessary to scale up the process. 
• Low Capacity: The ten laboratories together can sequence about 30,000 samples a month, or 1,000 a day, six times less than what is needed to meet the target.
• Fund crunch: Funding is being delayed repeatedly. INSACOG asked for Rs 100 crore, but it was not until March that any funding arrived and it received Rs 70 crore.
• Sample Collection: The healthcare system is already overstretched and this is one additional task for them to sort and package samples and RNA preparations regularly for shipping in a cold chain to sequencing centres along with recording extensive metadata to make sequence information useful.
• Dependence on Imports: The process of genome sequencing slowed down due to the Atma Nirbhar scheme which banned imports of goods worth less than Rs 200 crore to promote local procurement. Even after the exemption, some special plastics inadvertently remained within the import ban affecting the process.
• International aspect: The poor progress in genome sequencing also affects India’s image abroad, as all countries are required to upload data into a common global repository, called the ‘Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza data’, or GISAID.

Way Forward

• The Number of laboratories should be increased to get the research going at the speed required. The Union Health Minister has announced the opening of 17 more laboratories for the same.
• The data collected from genome sequencing of the virus will further aid in studying linkages between the variants and epidemiological waves (super-spreader events, outbreaks) of the virus.

Source: TH