Chapter 1-Geological Ecosystem

• India is the 5^th largest country in the world and has rich geographical and geological diversity, ranging from the mighty Himalayas which are one of the highest mountain ranges in the world to low-lying coastal plains overseeing the vast Indian Ocean.
• The Himalayas are the highest mountain range in the world, separates the Indian landmass from the Tibetan Plateau.
  • It has been formed by the collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate, resulting in the formation of a large fold mountain system, running along the northern fringes of the Indian sub-continent.
  • It runs from west-northwest to east-southeast direction in the form of an arc for about 2,400 km, extending across five southeast Asian countries.
  • Its width varies from 350 km in the west to 150 km in the east.
  • It consists of four parallel mountain ranges namely, the Shivalik Hills, the Lower Himalayan Range or Himachal, the Great Himalayan Range or Himadri, and the Tibetan Himalayas from south to north.
  • The Great Himalayas are home to some of the highest peaks in the world such as Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat, etc.
  • Several glaciers are present within the range, including Gangotri Glacier and Satopanth Glacier.
  
• The Northern Plains also referred to as ‘Great Plains of India is one of the most extensive alluvial tracts in the world.
  • It runs for roughly 2400 km from west to east and stretches 240 to 320 km from north to south.
  • It has formed from sediments brought by rivers, originating from uplifting Himalayas, and deposited in a foreland basin.
  • As the rivers originating from the Himalayas descend the hills, their velocity decreases and as a result, they dump much of their denser and coarser sediment fraction along the foothills in a narrow, porous, thin strip called Bhabar which is around 8 to 16 km wide.
  • The Terai belt is located south of the Bhabar belt where streams go underground in the Bhabar belt resurfaces.
  • Teria region is densely forested and has diverse flora and fauna and houses some of the famous national parks such as Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand and Kaziranga National Park in Assam.
  • Bhangar, which is an older alluvium that forms a terrace above the floodplain.
  • It is frequently covered in calcareous stone-like pebbles known as ‘Kankar’.
  
• The rivers of northern plains are laden with sediment deposits, their sediment load at the mouth forms the largest delta in the world called Sundarbans.
  • The mangrove forest presents a natural barrier against tropical cyclones and tsunamis.
  • The area is known for its wide range of fauna, including many bird species, the Bengal Tiger, and other threatened species such as the estuarine crocodile and the Indian Python.
• The Peninsular Plateau is the largest physiographic entity of the Indian landmass.
  • It has a table-land type of topography.
  • It has elevations of about 900-1200 m above mean sea level,
  • dissected by numerous rivers, forming broad valleys.
  • The plateau stretches from the Aravalli Range in the west to the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the east.
  • It comprises important mountain ranges of Central India such as Vindhyans, Satpuras, Mahadeo, Maikal and Sarguja ranges as well as the Western and Eastern Ghats.
  • It is rich in mineral resources. It contains mineral deposits, such as iron, bauxite, mica, gold, copper, manganese, etc.
  • It has well-known mines like Kolar, Hutti, Bailadila, Singhbhum, Korba, Malanjkhand, etc.
  • Most of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are found in the Peninsular Plateau.
  • A large part of the plateau is covered with fertile black soil which is extremely useful for growing cotton.
  

• The Thar Desert, also known as the ‘Great Indian Desert; is a vast arid region, located primarily in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.
  • It consists of sand dunes, rocky terrain, salt flats, and sparse vegetation.
  • The sand dunes, known as ‘bhakhar’, can reach heights of up to 150 m and constantly shift with the wind.
  • The desert also features dry riverbeds called ‘nullahs; which occasionally fill with water during the monsoon season.
  • The region is rich is oil reserves and is home to one of the largest onshore oil fields in India in Barmer Basin.
  • The region also has one of the largest salt marshes in the world called the ‘Great Rann of Kutch' Kutch is one of the major salt-producing districts in India.
  

• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands form an archipelago, consisting of around 572 islands, out of which only about 37 are inhabited.
  • These islands are known for their pristine beaches, lush tropical forests, and diverse marine life.
  • These are mainly volcanic in origin, formed by the eruption of lava due to plate movements.
  • Barren Island in the Andaman Sea is the only active volcano in India.
  • Another group of islands from the west coast of India is Lakshadweep, which is an archipelago of 36 islands. These are mainly coral islands with unique marine flora and fauna.
  

Conclusion-India is endowed with great mineral wealth and is one the largest producers of coal, iron ore, bauxite, manganese, mica, and zinc in the world. Geological ecosystems have not only played a major role in defining India’s mineral wealth but also have shaped its unique geographical landscape.

Chapter 2- Holistic Exploration of Western Ghats

About Western Ghats

• The Western Ghats (also known as the Sahyadri Mountain Range) are recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot and often referred to as the Great Escarpment of India.
• It holds the prestigious designation of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• It stretches from a latitudinal extent of 8°-22°N from the river Tapti in the north to Kanyakumari in the South.
• It encompasses regions in six states: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, and one Union Territory (Dadra & Nagar Haveli).

Topography and Natural Resources

• It holds significant importance from several perspectives-
  • its geomorphic value belongs to the Malabar Rainforest Biogeographic Province.
  • Their positioning makes the Western Ghats biogeographically distinct and exceptionally biodiverse- a valuable repository of biological wealth.
  • These are older than the Himalayas and hold the distinction of being an ‘evolutionary ecotone, providing evidence for both the ‘Out of Africa’ and the ‘Out of India’ hypotheses.

• These mountains took shape millions of years ago during the collision of the Indian subcontinent with the Eurasian plate.
• As a result of this collision, the land was thrust upward, giving rise to the majestic mountains of the Western Ghats.
• They have an average elevation of around 1,200 metres (3,900 ft), with several peaks reaching heights of up to 2,600 metres (8,500 ft). Anamudi, located in Kerala, is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.
• The region is a watershed for several major rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Tungabhadra, which provide water for irrigation, drinking, and hydropower generation to millions of people.
• These mountains play a pivotal role in modulating India’s climate by intercepting monsoon winds, preventing them from reaching the Deccan Plateau, and thus maintaining its cool, dry conditions.

Subdivision of Western Ghats

The Western Ghats can be subdivided into three primary parts:

1. The Northern Ghats: From Gujarat to Maharashtra and represents the lowest and least rugged section of the Western Ghats.
2. The Central Ghats: They extend from Karnataka to Kerala and represent the highest and most rugged section of the Western Ghats.
3. The Southern Ghats: The area extends from Kerala to Tamil Nadu and represents the most dissected section of the Western Ghats.

Biodiversity

• It is home to one of the highest levels of endemism globally.
• A total of 4,000 vascular plant species, of which 1,500 were endemic, accounting for 37.5% of the total.
• Specifically, of the nearly 650 tree species identified in the Western Ghats, 352 (54%) are found nowhere else.
• Animal diversity is equally remarkable, with amphibians (up to 179 species, 65% endemic), reptiles (157 species, 62% endemic), and fishes (219 species, 53% endemic), highlighting high levels of endemism.
• The climatic and altitudinal gradient of the Western Ghats has led to a diverse range of vegetation types, including evergreen, semievergreen, moist deciduous, and dry deciduous vegetation.
• Western Ghats have the following forest types- (i) dry scrub vegetation (ii) dry deciduous forests (iii) moist deciduous forests (iv) semi-evergreen forests (v) evergreen forests (vi) shoals; and (vii) high-altitude grasslands.
• The Western Ghats are home to a minimum of 325 species listed as globally threatened according to the IUCN Red List.

Threats

Western Ghats are confronted with numerous threats such as-

• Habitat loss and fragmentation, primarily driven by the cultivation of coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and other crops, leading to widespread deforestation.
• Wildlife poaching, deforestation, overfishing, and livestock grazing.
• Excessive use of agrochemicals in various plantations contributes to the deterioration of natural habitats.
• Construction of railway lines, mining operations, and tourist infrastructure in the mountainous areas.

Conservation and Management

• Efforts have been made to provide legal protection to wildlife and habitats, designate protected areas, and recognize the rights of forest-dwelling communities.
• It includes laws such as the Environment (Protection) Act, Wildlife (Protection) Act, and Forest Rights Act, declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) etc,
• Institutions and agencies like the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change, State Forest Departments, and the National Biodiversity Authority play pivotal roles in overseeing conservation efforts.
• However, challenges persist, including the effective implementation of policies, balancing development with conservation, ensuring interstate coordination, and addressing emerging climate change issues.

Way Forward

Priorities should include strengthening enforcement mechanisms, promoting sustainable development practices, enhancing collaboration among stakeholders, investing in research and monitoring, and addressing the challenges posed by climate change.

Collaboration among the Government, local communities, NGOs, and other stakeholders remains crucial for the successful conservation of the Western Ghats.

Chapter 3- Soil Ecosystem

• The soil ecosystem is a remarkable and complex network of organisms and abiotic factors that interact in a dynamic environment.
• It supports a diverse array of life forms, playing a critical role in sustaining terrestrial ecosystems and human societies alike.

Components of the Soil Ecosystem

1. Physical Environment: It includes texture, structure, and moisture content, create the foundation for the soil ecosystem. These factors influence the distribution and behavior of organisms within the soil profile.
2. Organic Matter: It comprises of dead plant and animal material, along with living organisms such as microbes’ fungi, and earthworms. Organic matter provides nutrients and energy to support soil life and plays a crucial role in soil fertility and structure.
3. Micro-organisms: Bacteria, fungi, protozoa etc are vital for nutrient cycling, decomposition, and soil health. They break down organic matter, fix nitrogen, and contribute to the formation of soil aggregates.
4. Macro-organisms: larger organisms, including earthworms, insects, nematodes, and small mammals, inhabit the soil and play various roles in nutrient cycling, soil aeration, and soil structure formation. Their activities influence soil fertility and ecosystem functioning.
5. Plant Roots: They exudates fuel microbial activity and contribute to soil organic matter, shaping soil microbial communities and nutrient cycling processes. Plant root exudatesare fluids emitted through the roots of plants.

Functions of the Soil Ecosystem

1. Nutrient Cycling: Soil organisms decompose organic matter, releasing nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium into the soil. These nutrients are then taken up by plants, fueling growth and productivity.
2. Decomposition: Microorganisms and detritivores break down organic matter, recycling nutrients and returning them to the soil. Decomposition processes contribute to soil fertility and organic matter accumulation.
3. Soil Formation: Through weathering and biological processes, soil develops over time from parent material.
4. Water Regulation: Soil acts as a reservoir for water, storing and releasing it slowly over time. Soil influences water infiltration, retention, and drainage, affecting plant growth, groundwater recharge, and flood mitigation.
5. Habitat Support: Soil provides a habitat for a vast array of organisms, ranging from microscopic bacteria to larger mammals.

Interconnections in the Soil Ecosystem

The components and functions of the soil ecosystem are interconnected through intricate networks of relationships and feedback loops. For example, plant roots exude sugars and other compounds, fueling the growth of soil microbes. In return, microbes aid in nutrient uptake by plants and contribute to soil aggregation and structure formation.

Conclusion

The soil ecosystem is a dynamic and diverse community of organisms and abiotic factors that sustain life on Earth. Soil plays a vital role in terrestrial ecosystems and human wellbeing.

Understanding the complexity of the soil ecosystem is essential for sustainable land management and ecosystem conservation, ensuring the continued health and productivity of soils for future generations.

Chapter 4- Sacred Groves

SacredGrovesare the area of “natural” vegetation preserved through local taboos and sanctions that entail spiritual and ecological values. The ecological values are found in the traditional association of the sacred groves with wildlife and physical landscape such as streams.

Types of Sacred Groves

Based on the deities, cultural, and the religious importance, and their association.

1. Temple Groves: These groves are associated with temples due to their religious importance; generally, they are protected by the government, the temple trust, or village committees.
2. Traditional Sacred Groves: These are the places where the folk deities reside. They often contain a rich variety of plant and animal life.
3. Religious Groves: Where they are associated with Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islamism, and Sikhism.
4. Island Groves: Island groves can be categorized based on the habitat type-specific ecological importance, for example, mangroves and coastal/reverie areas in Andhra Pradesh.
5. Burial/Cremational/Memorial Groves: They are associated with burial places. These are seen as places of reverence for the deceased and are believed to be inhabited by the spirits of ancestors.

Significance of Sacred Groves

1. Protection of Ecosystems: They often serve as protected areas, safeguarding biodiversity by restricting human activities that can harm the environment.
2. Traditional Knowledge: Local communities that manage sacred groves often possess a deep understanding of the local ecology and traditional practices that have been passed down through generations.
3. Biodiversity Conservation: They can act as refuge for a wide range of plant and animal species, especially in areas where habitat loss is a major threat.
4. Cultural Preservation: They are important repositories of cultural and religious practices of local communities.
5. Community Empowerment: They are often managed by local communities.
6. Environmental Benefits: They play a vital role in maintaining the ecological balance of an area.
7. Community Conservation: It is protecting biodiversity, preserving natural resources, and managing natural resources sustainably for future preservation.

Biodiversity Heritage Site

It is a unique conservation approach recognized under Section 37 (1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002. Under this, the State Government may, from time to time, in consultation with the local bodies, notify in the official Gazette of areas of biodiversity importance as Biodiversity Heritage Sites. So far, 44 Biodiversity Heritage Sites have been notified by 16 states.

Challenges

Sacred Groves have been legally protected under the Community Reserves in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment act, 2002 but, in the modern era, the groves are facing serious threat due to:

• Habitat loss
• Climatic change
• Global warming
• Invasive/ Alien species
• Other challenges such as Anthropogenic pressure, encroachment, deforestation, cultural degradation, pollution, and no proper legislations, etc.

Conclusion

Sacred groves have been legally protected under community reserves under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002.

These are the best examples of community conservation and unique source for in-situ conservation, but in the modern era, the groves are facing serious threats due to rapid urbanization, cultural shifting, anthropogenic pressure, global warming, and climatic change, etc, leads to rapid erosion of the sacred groves, their ecology, floral & faunal compositions, and sociocultural significance.

Chapter 5- Blue Economy

According to the World Bank, the blue economy is defined as the sustainable development of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of the ocean ecosystem.

• It emphasizes the integration of the development of the ocean economy with social inclusion and environmental sustainability, combined with innovative business models.
• Around 3-5% of global GDP derived from oceans and it has great potential for boosting economic growth by providing opportunities for income generation, jobs, etc.
• Over 80% of international goods being transported by sea
• The UN has declared the period 2021-2030 as the ‘UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development’.

India’s Scenario

• India has a coastline of more than 7500 km and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of more than 2.2 million sq km.
• 9 of India’s states have access to the coastline.
• India comprises 200 ports, of which 12 are major ports that handled 541.76 million tonnes in FY21, the highest being Mormugao Port, located in Goa.
• India is the second-largest fish-producing nation in the world and has a fleet of 2,50,000 fishing boats.
• India’s blue economy accounts for roughly 4% of the GDP and is estimated to increase over the period of time.

Activities in Blue Economy

The blue economy encompasses a diverse range of activities that are critical for sustainable development. Some are listed below:

1. Renewable Energy: Sustainable marine energy such as offshore wind and wave energy promotes sustainable developing and helps in reducing reliance on nonrenewable energy sources.
2. Fisheries: Sustainable fisheries management ensures more revenue, a continuous supply of fish, and contributing to the restoration of fish stocks, thus supporting both economic and environmental goals.
3. Maritime Transport: It is a cornerstone of the global economy, connecting nations and facilitating trade.
4. Tourism: Ocean and coastal tourism offer recreational opportunities, contribute to job creation and economic growth, making it a key component of the blue economy.
5. Climate Change: Oceans act as crucial carbon sinks, absorbing and storing carbon dioxide, a phenomenon known as ‘blue carbon’.
6. Waste Management: Proper waste disposal practices prevent pollution, marine debris, and environmental degradation, fostering ocean recovery.

Importance of the Blue Economy for India

• Ocean and Resources

  The ocean and its EEZ offer great economic opportunities, having both living and non-living resources.

  Fisheries

  • Fisheries can be categorized as marine fisheries and inland fisheries.
  • Fisheries have contributed Rs. 46,663 crores to the economy through exports in 2019-20.
  • In 1950-51, fish production amounted to 0.75 MMT (million metric tonnes), and in 2019- 20, it was 14.2 MMT.
  • Out of 14.2 MMT production, marine fish production was 3.7 MMT, and inland fish production was 10.4 MMT (Annual Report of the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, 2021).

  Minerals

  • The continental margins of India has an extensive variety of terrigenous, biogenous, and homogenous mineral deposits.
  • Heavy minerals like ilmenite, magnetite, monazite, zircon, and rutile were reported from the beaches of Indian coastal states.

  Hydrocarbons

  • The sea beds are the major source of hydrocarbons. India has 26 sedimentary basins, spread across a total area of 3.4 million square kilometers.
  • India has about 34 MMT of oil and 33 BCM of gas production.
  • The current annual oil and natural gas consumption is about 1.3 billion barrels and 65 billion cubic meters, which is not met with internal resources, raising dependence on imports.

  Renewable Energy

  • It includes energy from natural phenomena like sunlight, Onshore wind, Offshore wind, hydroelectric, tides, waves, etc.
  • Technologies like tidal lagoons, tidal reefs, tidal fences, and tidal barrages are used for tidal energy generation.
  • Renewable energy in offshore regions has tremendous potential in the form of offshore wind, waves, ocean currents, including tidal currents, and thermal energy.
  • Out of all the different renewable energies generated from oceans, the offshore wind energy industry is the most developed.
• Ports, Shipping, and Marine Tourism
  • India has a network of 12 major ports and 187 non-major ports.
  • Approximately 95% of the country’s trade by volume and 68% by value is moved through maritime transport.
  • India has one of the largest merchant shipping fleets among the developing countries and ranks 17" in the world, thus shipping sector is also one of the key livelihoods providers in the blue economy.
  • Marine tourism is the fastest growing globally, and in India, coastal tourism has contributed largely to both the state economies and livelihood creation.
• Ocean Science and Services
  • Observations, data, and information services: Ocean and coastal observations, data, andinformation services are of paramount importancefor all Blue Economy stakeholders. Operational services such as Marine Fishery Advisories, Ocean State Forecasts, Tsunami and Storm Surge Early Warnings, Sea Level Rise, Oil Spill Trajectories, Marine Search and Rescue Information, Water Quality Forecasts, Coral Bleaching Alerts, Harmful Algal Blooms, Coastal Vulnerability, etc. are key to enhancing the safety of lives and livelihoods of coastal communities, the efficiency of maritime.
  • Impact of climate change and disasters on the blue economy: The ocean holds vast natural capital (Ocean Asset Value), estimated at USD 24 trillion. However, ocean warming, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, and marine pollution are damaging marine ecosystems, productivity, and the lives and livelihoods of those dependent.
  • Marine Biodiversity: Its Conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biodiversity is essential to ensuring that the world’s oceans, seas, and marine living resources remain vital for current and future generations.
  • Healthy Oceans: The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 14), Life Below Water, of the UN call for conservation and sustainable use of oceans and marine resources. The growing menace of marine pollution, especially from plastics and microplastics, has to be addressed by a robust Plastic Elimination and National Marine Litter policy involving multiple stakeholders.
  • Research Gap: Blue economy is a new topic that has gained importance in 21^st century. There are many studies on the blue economy at the national and international level in marine biology, marine technology, marine chemistry, geology, shipping, oceanography, etc.
• Niche areas
  • Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning: It is a science-based approach that can be used to analyze and allocate coastal and marine uses over space and time to address specific ocean management challenges and advance goals for economic development and conservation.
• Source of Employment in the Blue Economy
  • Fishing and Aquaculture: Traditional sectors like fishing, aquaculture, and fish processing have been significant sources of employment in the blue economy for many decades.
  • Marine Tourism: activities like cruise travel, boating, scuba diving, and more, contributes to employment and economic growth in coastal regions.
  • Shipping and Ports: The growth in the logistics sector, driven by industrial demand, emphasizes the increasing role of ports in future employment.
  • Shipbuilding: It holds significant potential and employs individuals with diverse skills.
  • Offshore Wind and Marine Biology: Emerging sectors like offshore wind and marine biology provide new employment opportunities.
  • Skill Development Initiatives: The blue economy has the potential to engage a large workforce and has been doing so for the past many decades.

Conclusion

From traditional fishing practices to innovative sectors like offshore wind and marine biology, the blue economy is evolving. Skill development initiatives, youth involvement, and the preservation of traditionalknowledge are integral to harnessing the full potential of the blue economy and ensuring prosperity for all.

Chapter 6- The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

About Ramsar Convention

• It is an international treatyfor “theconservationand sustainable use of wetlands”.
• It is also known as theConvention on Wetlands.
• It is named after the city ofRamsar in Iran.
• The Convention was signed on 2^ndof February 1971.
• The2^ndof Februaryeach year isWorld Wetlands Day.
• Number of parties to the convention (COP) is 172.
• This aims for wise use of wetlands i.e. maintenance of ecological character within the context of sustainable development.

Why needed?

• 64% of the world’s wetlands have already depleted in the last century.
• Wetlands are indispensable for the many benefits or“ecosystemservices”that they provide ranging from freshwater supply, food and building materials, andbiodiversity, flood control, groundwater recharge, andclimate changemitigation.

What is a Wetland?

It includesall lakes and rivers, underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peatland, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats,mangrovesand other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fishponds, rice paddies, reservoirs and salt pans.

Criteria

To be Ramsar site, however, it must meet at least one of nine criteria as defined by the Ramsar Convention, such as:

• Supporting vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or
• Threatened ecological communities or,
• If it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds or,
• Is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks are dependent upon.

Mains Practice Question (in around 250 words)

Q1. Blue economy has a great potential to harness the new sphere of economic activities with great potential”. In light of this statement discuss the significance and list the steps taken by India to promote the blue economy.

Q2. Comment on the National Wetland Conservation Programme initiated by the Government of India and name a few India’s wetlands of international importance included in the Ramsar Sites.

Q3. Briefly discuss various factors that control the formation of soil. Explain with a suitable example.